Human behavior theories Essay Example for Free

Human behavior theories Essay Working as a community facilitator is all about empowering and facilitating change within individuals and communities. As their practice facilitators need to identify any challenges and work with the communities to look at ways of solving these problems together. This then requires first for the facilitator to find out why these challenges or problems come about in the first place. Theories are designed to understand human development, identity and approaches to practice. They help turn complicated human, behavioural and social singularities into ideas that are more accessible. It can be said then that theories provide a basis for understanding and reflecting on what we do which then helps us help communities on a micro, mezzo and macro levels. This essay will look at two of the human behaviour theories and how they help us understand and work with our communities (that we as facilitators serve) better. 2. DEFINITION OF TERMS 2. 1. Theory According to (Body, 2014) â€Å"A theory is a logical system of concepts that helps to explain why something happens in a particular way and to predict outcomes†. This means that by preparing their practice on theory, this leads a facilitator to get a better understanding of his/her own task, do some goal planning and also anticipate whatever outcomes there may be. 2. 2. Community Communities are unique with regard to the people in them, place, interaction meaning. According to (Heaven, 2014) â€Å"While we traditionally think of a community as the people in a given geographical location, the word can really refer to any group sharing something in common†. This could also mean any small geographical areas from e. g. a neighbourhood, housing project or development to any community with a large geographically-defined community. 3. HUMAN BEHAVIOR THEORIESÃ'Ž 3. 1. Social Construction Social construction is influential in changing grounded theory. As a way of trying to understand the social world, social construction views knowledge as being 2 constructed (as the name suggests) instead of being created. In this theory communities are seen as alternating between both subjective and objective reality. Past theorists believed that knowledge is beliefs in which people have rational confidence, a common sense of understanding and consensual notion as to what is knowledge. Social construction came about as a way to deal with the nature of reality. It has its origins in sociology and has been linked with the modern era of qualitative research. Reality is it may be something that we are not even aware of. Things like segregation according to what gender, race and class you are a just basic examples of social construction. These things only have meaning because society gives them meaning. According to Tom Andrews (2014) â€Å"Constructionists view knowledge and truth as created not discovered by the mind and supports the view that being a realist is not inconsistent with being a constructionist†. A person can believe that concepts are constructed other than being discovered yet relate to something in the real world. This is consistent with an idea that was put out that reality is socially defined but this one referred to the subjective experience of everyday life as opposed to the objective reality of the natural world. As Steedman (2000) said, â€Å"most of what is known and most of the knowing that is done is concerned with trying to make sense of what it is to be human, as opposed to scientific knowledge†. Individuals or communities decide or rather create this reality one may then ask how this reality or knowledge emerges or how it comes to have significance for society to which social constructionists may answer as they view knowledge as being created by the interactions of individuals within society which is at the centre of social construction as a theory. Andrews (2014) believes that subjective reality is brought about by the interaction of people with their social world and with this social world influencing them it results to routines and habits. That is to say that any regularly repeated action becomes a pattern which at some point can be done without much effort needed. With time this forms a sort of store of knowledge which is passed on to future generations which is then subjective reality. 3 Society gives you and identity from birth. Our identities as people come not from the inside but from the social sphere. Conversation is the main way of maintaining, modifying and reconstructing subjective reality. It compromises notions that are shared unproblematically between the communities so much so that these notions need not be defined each time they are used in conversation and come to assume reality. 3. 2. Examples of Social Construction The most common of all social constructions is that of men and women. Men are required (by society) to have qualities such as control, efficiency, toughness and coolness under emotional distress whilst women on the other hand are said to be the fragile amongst the two with qualities such as inefficiency, emotional expressiveness, caring and mutuality. This is what society has deemed as normal over the years which is what gives the battle of Patriarchy versus Matriarchy in this modern generation. Women today believe that they are more than able to do whatever the â€Å"men† can do and sometimes do it even better. It is clear though that in society’s opinion of gender that men should hold all the power. Laura Flores (2012) is quoted as saying â€Å"Power looks sexy on men, not on women†. But this could be seen as having a double meaning. Other than the obvious meaning we get, it could also mean that women are seen as unable to learn the skills or unable to do whatever a man can do as well. Feminists have been fighting hard battles in order to change this thinking and they have succeeded in changing some people’s minds but the in the traditional societies, mostly in the rural areas this social construction of men and women is still very much evident. Men still go out to provide for the family while the women is expected to stay behind and take care of the children and the home. One other example one could use is that of the social construction of gender. This is slightly different from the previous example used. When a baby is brought into the world the first thing that the doctor will look at is the baby’s sexual category (whether they are male or female) and this is where this social construction begins. Immediately after they are classified as boy or girl the parents then fall into this shared mechanism by dressing them in colours that are â€Å"appropriate† for their gender. Flores says â€Å"the â€Å"normal† thing to do in this case would be for the 4 baby girl to be dressed in pink and the baby boys to be dressed in blue†. You don’t want to be seen as weird for dressing your baby girl in blue or your baby boy in pink, right? Society has put aside colours as some of the symbols that differentiate between boys and girls. Children will then grow like this and then start to try to be like the people who are the same gender as them, â€Å"girls should start acting like their mommy and boys act like their daddy†. Each one will be expected to dress or act in a certain way (as in the first example) but such things are what leads to stereotypes. 3. 3. Asset Based Community Approach 3. 3. 1. What is Asset Based Community Approach (ABCD)? Asset Based Community Development (ABCD) is an approach for sustainable community development. The basis of ABCD is that it believes that communities can develop themselves by recognizing and using existing but often hidden assets to create economic opportunities. It builds those already existing assets in the community and gets individuals, associations and institutions to band together to build on their assets instead of focusing on their needs. It is a naturally positive approach. A large amount of time is spent in trying to identify the assets within a particular community whether it be from individuals, institutions and associations before they are then organised to build on them to the benefit of the community as a whole. The basic key as mentioned above is to use what is already in the community. The ABC approach aims to change people’s view that their needs can only be met by an outsider (professional). When it comes to working with the community, a facilitator who applies the ABCD approach should be adamant about stepping back and letting the community figure things out for themselves. They enlist the help of associations that are within the community in terms of the community development approach and additional support. However Community driven development is mostly done by outside agencies instead of networks that exist in the community already. 3. 3. 2. Discussion on ABCD ABCD pulls out the strengths and weaknesses within a community’s shared history as a starting point for change. Out of all the assets that a community may 5 have ABCD focuses on the assets that are deep rooted in social relationships and sees them as being both evident in both formal and informal networks and associations. It believes that everyone in the community has something to offer and that no one can be said to unimportant. ABCD view individuals as being as being at the centre of it all. The residents of the community has gifts and skills which they can out on the table. These need to be recognized and noted as in community development you can’t do anything with people’s needs but only their assets. Needs are only valuable to institutions. Institutions are groups of people (usually professionals) who share a common interest out of their own choice. These could be agencies or schools etc. these institutions help the community get resources and that in turn gives them a sense of civic responsibility. In terms of assets one could include physical assets such as land, space, funds etc. as they also could be used. 3. 3. 3. How is it facilitated in communities? As mentioned above ABCD is the development of self-mobilisation for change. This development has been implemented in many communities. The task for any agency that comes into a community such as NGO’s is how to put in place this development in other communities without creating a sense of dependency. There are different methods that are facilitated by NGO’s in communities for ABCD. Methods such as Collecting stories whereby they build confidence, informal discussions and interview that also have the goal of drawing out people’s experiences. Success in this will also enable them to uncover any gifts, skills, talents and assets that people in the community may have. Mapping the capacities and assets of individuals, associations and local institutions. Mapping is more than just gathering data on the community. It is of importance that you let the community and institutions d the mapping for themselves as they build new relationships, learn more about help and talents of other community members and also see any connections between different assets. 6 CONCLUSION Understanding a community is crucial to being able to work in it. Failing to understand it will deny you credibility and make it difficult for you both to connect with community members and to negotiate the twists and turns of starting and implementing a community initiative or intervention. Social constructionism places great emphasis on everyday interactions between people and how they use language to construct their reality. It regards the social practices people engage in as the focus of enquiry. This is very similar to the focus of grounded theory but without the emphasis on language. Social constructionism that views society as existing both as objective and subjective reality is fully compatible with classical grounded theory, unlike constructionist grounded theory which takes a relativist position. The ABCD is a substitute the more known needs-based approach. Instead of focusing on what the communities do not have, ABCD looks at what they have to offer. It not only creates a chance for the community to play a part in but they also lead the community planning process. The ABCD is always successful in getting individual participation in the projects in brings to their communities. 7 REFERENCE LIST Andrews, T (2012). What is social constructionism? [ONLINE] Available at: http://groundedtheoryreview. com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/ . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Body, A. (n. d. ). Theories Used in Social Work Practice. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. socialworkdegree. net/theories-used-in-social-work-practice/ . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Cunningham, G and Mathie, A. (2002). Asset Based Community Development- An Overview. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www. synergos.org/knowledge/o2/abcdoverview. htm . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Flores, L (2012). What is social construction? [ONLINE] Available at: http://oakes. ucsc. edu/academics/Core %20Course/oakes-core-awards-2012/laura-flores. html . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Hampton, C and Heaven C (n. d. ). Section 2. Understanding and Describing the Community. [ONLINE] Available at: http://ctb. ku. edu/en/table-of-contents/assessment/assessing-community-needs-a nd-resources/describe-the-community/main . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Simmons staff. (n. d. ). Theories Used in Social Work Practice. [ONLINE] Available at: http://socialwork.simmons. edu/theories-used-social-work-practice/ . [Last Accessed 26 August 2014]. Steedman, P. (2000). On the relations between seeing, interpreting and knowing. London: Sage. Suttles G, D. (1972). The social construction of communities. 1st ed. Illinois: University of Chicago Press. Vance S. C. (1989). Social construction theory: problems in the history of sexuality. 1st ed. Amsterdam: An Dekker. 8 Varien M, D Potter, M. J, (2008). The Social Construction of Communities: Agency, Structure, and Identity in the Prehispanic Southwest (Archaeology in Society). 1st Ed. New York: Rowman and Littlefield publishers.

Book Review: Policing Gangs in America Essay -- Drug Trafficking, Numer

This book review covers Policing Gangs in America by Charles Katz and Vincent Webb. Charles Katz has a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice, while Vincent Webb has a Ph.D. in Sociology, making both qualified to conduct and discuss research on gangs. Research for Policing Gangs in America was gathered in four cities across the American Southwest; Inglewood, California, Albuquerque, New Mexico, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Phoenix, Arizona. This review will summarize and discuss the main points of each chapter, then cover the relationship between the literature and class discussions in Introduction to Policing and finally it will note the strengths and weaknesses of book. The first chapter of Policing Gangs in America is entitled, â€Å"Studying the Police Response to Gangs.† The primary purpose of the chapter is to establish how police agencies; Inglewood, Las Vegas, Albuquerque and Phoenix in specific, respond to gang problems in their respective areas. This chapter served as an introduction, giving a brief history of gang-related policing, how the public and media see the gang problem, research studies done regarding gangs and the recent declaration to shift away from suppression-oriented strategies as a result of overly aggressive actions toward citizens. Examples of this misconduct are given in the forms of gang units from Las Vegas, Chicago and Houston. The second chapter is titled, â€Å"Setting and Methods† and sets out to make clear to the reader the specific methods and research conducted during the study. This study is the primary purpose of the book, and as with all research studies, how one conducts their research is incredibly important, especially if the study plans to be replicated at any point in time. The topics included in this cha... ...g measures out there. The reader is given plenty of background information on gangs allowing someone with little knowledge of the subject or the cities’ history to jump right in. Statistics, interviews, surveys and personal observations of the authors during ride-alongs make up much of the source material. The book’s strengths lie in the amount of research contained within it, as well as an insider look at the gang unit and what it takes to be an officer in that specialization. However, if it is not being used to supplement another research paper or study, the book comes off as a difficult and boring read, making a reader likely to put it down otherwise. â€Æ' Works Cited Katz, C. M., & Webb, V. J. (2006). Policing Gangs in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Walker, S., & Katz, C. (2011). The Police in America: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill. Book Review: Policing Gangs in America Essay -- Drug Trafficking, Numer This book review covers Policing Gangs in America by Charles Katz and Vincent Webb. Charles Katz has a Ph.D. in Criminal Justice, while Vincent Webb has a Ph.D. in Sociology, making both qualified to conduct and discuss research on gangs. Research for Policing Gangs in America was gathered in four cities across the American Southwest; Inglewood, California, Albuquerque, New Mexico, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Phoenix, Arizona. This review will summarize and discuss the main points of each chapter, then cover the relationship between the literature and class discussions in Introduction to Policing and finally it will note the strengths and weaknesses of book. The first chapter of Policing Gangs in America is entitled, â€Å"Studying the Police Response to Gangs.† The primary purpose of the chapter is to establish how police agencies; Inglewood, Las Vegas, Albuquerque and Phoenix in specific, respond to gang problems in their respective areas. This chapter served as an introduction, giving a brief history of gang-related policing, how the public and media see the gang problem, research studies done regarding gangs and the recent declaration to shift away from suppression-oriented strategies as a result of overly aggressive actions toward citizens. Examples of this misconduct are given in the forms of gang units from Las Vegas, Chicago and Houston. The second chapter is titled, â€Å"Setting and Methods† and sets out to make clear to the reader the specific methods and research conducted during the study. This study is the primary purpose of the book, and as with all research studies, how one conducts their research is incredibly important, especially if the study plans to be replicated at any point in time. The topics included in this cha... ...g measures out there. The reader is given plenty of background information on gangs allowing someone with little knowledge of the subject or the cities’ history to jump right in. Statistics, interviews, surveys and personal observations of the authors during ride-alongs make up much of the source material. The book’s strengths lie in the amount of research contained within it, as well as an insider look at the gang unit and what it takes to be an officer in that specialization. However, if it is not being used to supplement another research paper or study, the book comes off as a difficult and boring read, making a reader likely to put it down otherwise. â€Æ' Works Cited Katz, C. M., & Webb, V. J. (2006). Policing Gangs in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Walker, S., & Katz, C. (2011). The Police in America: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Effects of Mass Media

During the last century there have been many developments in the evolution of media. The biggest probably being computers and the internet. Computers used to be just giant, chunky, boxes with a screen, a keyboard, and a mouse. They were slow as a snail and the graphics were not of the best quality. Now a days, we have slim and sleek screens that can be completely touch censored, and voice typing. As well as faster performance and processing, high-definition and high quality graphics. The internet has gone from a slow dial-up connection to now being wireless with extremely fast connections and now people can connect to the web from almost anywhere in the world thanks to Wi-fi, iPads, laptops, tablets and smart phones. Smart phones are the new and improved versions of the not so impressive cell phones from the past centuries. What used to be basic buttons and screen flip phones are now slim touch-screened phones. Today’s cell phones, or as they are now called smart phones, can take high quality photos and videos. They are also capable of downloading applications, or apps, that allow the user to play high graphic games, watch television and movies. As well as have face-to-face video chatting, text messaging and email. Now all of these changes have greatly influenced not only the American culture, but the entire world. The high speeds of the internet have made keeping in touch with friends and family simple and fast, thanks to text messaging and emails. Social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace, are a great way to stay in touch. These sites allow users to post status updates, upload albums worth of pictures and videos, as well as plan events and send out invites. An educational game used by children on computers, tablets and smart phones gives the chance to begin learning at a young age while having fun at the same time. The portability of these devices is great for on the go learning. Barcode scanners on smart phone weight loss apps, allow users to gain more information on food items and gives the opportunity to make healthier food choices when shopping for groceries. Fitness apps also help users keep track of workouts and set alarm reminders to workout, as well as view videos and tips on how to properly perform exercises. Online purchases make shopping a breeze, people can browse products online, add them to a virtual shopping cart and by just typing in their credit card information they have made their purchase. This ability creates an easier lifestyle for those that have issues with driving and walking. Media convergence, or a process by which previously distant technologies come to share tasks and resources, can be thanked for all these great changes. Basically what media convergence is is traditional media combining with emerging media. A good example of this would be the ability for cell phones to not only take high quality pictures and videos but the opportunity to share them online. Henry Jenkins a media theorist suggested that there are five different forms of media convergence. Economic convergence which is when one company uses many different forms of media, something such as a business using commercials, radio and online adds to sell their products. Secondly we have cultural convergence, or when news and information pass along through things such as social networking sites, blogs, television, and newspapers. This allows users to comment their own opinions and information. Global convergence involves geographically distant cultures that are able to influence each other. Technological convergence is the merging of different technologies, such as the cell phones new abilities that was discussed earlier. Lastly would be organic convergence, or multimedia multitasking, and the natural outcome of the media world. Due to today’s society being highly dependent on media as it is our main source of communication and other life necessities, the ability to process media messages, or media literacy, is a very important skill to obtain. From a very early age we are all exposed to media and being a media literate person allows one to chance to interpret these messages in their own way and form their own opinion in this media lead society. As you can see media is a wildly used resource all over the world and as it continues to advance and grow with each century, there is no way of knowing just how far things will go with the power of media and knowledge.

Ethical Consumers and Consumption Definition and Discussion

A glance at contemporary news headlines reveals the many problems that stem from how global capitalism and consumerism operate.  Global warming and climate change threaten to wipe out our species and the planet. Dangerous and deadly working conditions are common on the production lines of many goods we consume.  Tainted and toxic food products appear regularly on the shelves of grocery stores. People working in many industries and services sectors, from fast food to retail, to education, cannot afford to feed themselves and their families without food stamps. In response to these—and many other—problems, many have turned to ethical consumerism in order to address global issues by changing their patterns of consumption. The key question of ethical consumerism can be stated as follows: when the problems connected to our way of life are so many and diverse, how can we act in ways that are rooted in respect for the environment and others? Below, we’ll review how studying consumption patterns from a critical perspective can show us how to be ethical consumers. Key Takeways: Being an Ethical Consumer In today’s globalized economy, our choices about what to buy have far-reaching consequences around the world.While we don’t typically stop to think about our everyday purchases, doing so can allow us to make more ethical product choices.In response to concerns about the ethical impacts of global capitalism, initiatives have been developed to create fair trade and sustainable products. Wide-Ranging Consequences Being an ethical consumer in today’s world requires first recognizing that consumption is not just embedded in economic relations, but also in social and political ones. Because of this, what we consume matters beyond the immediate context of our lives. When we consume goods or services brought to us by the economic system of capitalism, we effectively agree with how this system works. By purchasing goods produced by this system we give our consent, by virtue of our participation, to the distribution of profit and costs throughout supply chains, to how much the people who make stuff are paid and to the massive accumulation of wealth enjoyed by those at the top. Not only do our consumer choices support and affirm the economic system as it exists, but they also provide legitimacy to the global  and national policies that make the economic system possible. Our consumer practices give our consent to the unequal distribution power and unequal access to rights and resources that are fostered by our political systems. Finally, when we consume, we place ourselves into social relationships with all the people who participate in producing, packaging, exporting and importing, marketing, and selling the goods we buy, and with all of those who participate in providing the services we purchase. Our consumer choices connect us in both good and bad ways to hundreds of millions of people around the world. So consumption, though an everyday and unremarkable act, is actually embedded in a complex, global web of economic, political, and social relations. As such, our consumer practices have sweeping implications. What we consume matters. Critical Thinking About Consumption Patterns For most of us, the  implications of our consumer practices remain unconscious or subconscious, in large part because they are far removed from us, geographically speaking. However, when we think consciously and critically about them, they can take on a different kind of economic, social, and political significance. If we frame the problems that stem from global production and consumption as unethical or morally corrupt, then we can visualize a pathway to ethical consumption by selecting products and services that break from harmful and destructive patterns. If unconscious consumption supports and reproduces the problematic status quo, then a critically conscious, ethical consumption can challenge it by supporting alternative economic, social, and political relations of production and consumption. Let’s examine a couple of key issues, and then consider what an ethical consumer response to them looks like. Raising Wages Many of the products we consume are affordable because they are produced by low-wage workers around the world who are kept in impoverished conditions by the capitalist imperative to pay as little as possible for labor. Nearly every global industry is plagued with this problem, including consumer electronics, fashion, food, and toys, to name just a few. In particular, farmers who sell produce via  global commodities markets, like those who grow coffee and tea, cocoa, sugar, fruits and vegetables, and grains, are historically underpaid. Human rights and labor organizations, and some private businesses, have worked to reduce this problem by shortening the global supply chain that extends between producers and consumers. This means removing people and organizations from that supply chain so that those who actually make the goods receive more money for doing so. This is how fair trade certified and direct trade systems work, and often how organic and sustainable local food works too. It is also the basis of the Fairphone, a business response to the troubled mobile communications industry. In these cases, its not just shortening the supply chain that improves the situation for workers and producers, but also increasing transparency and regulation in the production process to ensure that fair prices are paid to workers and that they work in safe and respectful conditions. Protecting the Environment Other problems stemming from the global system of capitalist production and consumption are environmental in nature. These include the sapping of resources, environmental degradation, pollution, and global warming and climate change. In this context, ethical consumers look for products that are sustainably produced, such as organic (certified or not, as long as transparent and trusted), carbon neutral, and mixed-cropped instead of using resource-intensive monoculture farming. Additionally, ethical consumers seek products made from recycled or renewable materials, and also look to reduce their consumption and waste footprint by repairing, reusing, repurposing, sharing or trading, and recycling. Measures that extend the life of a product help reduce the unsustainable use of resources that global production and consumption requires. Ethical consumers recognize that ethical and sustainable disposal of products is just as important as ethical consumption. Is It Possible to Be an Ethical Consumer? While global capitalism often leads us to make unsustainable purchases, it is possible to make different choices and to be an ethical consumer in today’s world. It requires conscientious practice, and a commitment to consuming less overall in order to pay a higher price for equitable, environmentally sustainable goods. From a sociological standpoint, it’s important to recognize that there are also other ethical issues regarding consumption: for example, ethical and sustainable products are more expensive, and, consequently, aren’t necessarily a feasible option for all consumers. However, when we are able to do so, buying fair trade and sustainable products can have consequences throughout the global supply chain.